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THERAPEUTIC NUTRITION

Useful information about the needs of cats and dogs with nutritionally sensitive health conditions.

Dental/Oral Health Disorders

Gingivitis & Periodontitis in Dogs and Cats

Periodontal disease is one of the most common diseases in dogs and cats.1,2 It is caused by the body’s inflammatory response to the deposition of plaque on the teeth, both above and below the gum line. Periodontal disease is categorized by degree of severity:

  • Gingivitis occurs first with inflammation limited to the gum tissue. With appropriate and ongoing management, the disease is regarded as reversible at this point.3-5
  • However, if gingivitis is not treated, it may progress to periodontitis. At this stage, destruction of the periodontal ligament attachment and adjacent alveolar bone (the supporting connective tissue and bone) occurs. Tooth loss may eventually result. Periodontitis is not reversible but may be controlled.3-5
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Reduction of plaque and tartar buildup is key to prevention and management of periodontal disease.3,5 Comprehensive lifelong management of dental hygiene includes mechanical means, such as tooth brushing and regular professional teeth scaling and polishing, and non-mechanical means, both of which can include a nutritional component.3,5

Key Messages

  • Research has shown that specially formulated dental diets and chews can reduce plaque and tartar in dogs and cats.6-14 Dental diets and chews may utilize mechanical and/or non-mechanical mechanisms of action:
    • While any dry pet food will reduce plaque and tartar compared to wet foods,15,16 specially formulated dental diets and chews are even more effective.6,7 The size, surface area, shape, texture, and/or density of dental kibble and chews are enhanced to prolong chewing times and increase contact with the teeth and gums, scraping off plaque and tartar as the pet chews.6-10,12,14 For example, kibble size may be larger, and dental chews may have ridges for increased contact with the teeth and gingiva; and fiber may be included to extend chewing time.8,10,17
      • The VOHC (Veterinary Oral Health Council) Seal of Acceptance on a dental diet or chew indicates the product has met VOHC’s standards for inhibiting the buildup of plaque and tartar when used as directed.17
      • Although some research suggested that chewing bones helps remove plaque and tartar,18,19 other research demonstrated potential risks when bones are fed, such as broken teeth, choking due to an esophageal foreign body, or perforation.20-23 Pathogenic bacteria may contaminate raw bones and diets, a risk to the pet and humans in the household.24-26 Hence, bones should be avoided. 
    • Dental foods and chews may utilize non-mechanical means of reducing or preventing plaque and tartar accumulation with the following ingredients:7,9,27
      • Inorganic phosphate salts, e.g., pyrophosphates and sodium tripolyphosphate, chelate calcium to inhibit mineralization of plaque to form tartar.7,9,27
      • Soluble zinc salts, e.g., zinc ascorbate, are antimicrobial and may inhibit the growth of bacteria in plaque.9,10,14,27
  • Research identifying the differences in plaque bacterial populations in health versus various stages of periodontal disease is ongoing in dogs and cats.28-33 Initial studies exploring whether probiotics can alter the composition of the oral microbiome in dogs and cats have shown mixed results.34-36 Additional research is needed to determine whether probiotics or prebiotics can inhibit plaque and tartar accumulation through effects on the periodontopathogens. 
  • Although plaque deposition is an important cause of periodontal disease, nutritional inadequacies or imbalances, especially in puppies and kittens and with regards to calcium; phosphorus; vitamins A, C, and D; B vitamins; and protein, may also negatively affect the health of periodontal tissues, e.g., causing alveolar bone resorption. Complete and balanced nutrition is vital for oral health development and maintenance.10
  • Since periodontal disease may be painful, periodontal disease should be ruled out in pets with a reduced appetite.
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“Your pet has periodontal disease, which may be painful. If left untreated, your pet’s periodontal disease may progress and eventually lead to tooth loss. After a professional scaling and polishing of the teeth, we can use a dental diet or dental chews to help reduce new plaque deposits on your pet’s teeth.”

Related Tools and Content:

Halitosis in Dogs and Cats

Nutrition can play a role in the management of halitosis in pets.

View Brief 1 min to 5 min

References

  1. Lund, E. M., Armstrong, P. J., Kirk, C. A., Kolar, L. M., & Klausner, J. S. (1999). Health status and population characteristics of dogs and cats examined at private veterinary practices. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 214, 1336–1341.
  2. O’Neill, D. G., Church, D. B., McGreevy, P. D., Thomson, P. C., & Brodbelt, D. C. (2014). Prevalence of disorders recorded in dogs attending primary-care veterinary practices in England. PLoS ONE, 9(3), e90501. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090501
  3. Perry, R., & Tutt, C. (2015). Periodontal disease in cats: Back to basics – with an eye on the future. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 17(1), 45–65. doi: 10.1177/1098612X14560099
  4. Harvey, C. E. (1998). Periodontal disease in dogs: Etiopathogenesis, prevalence, and significance. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 28(5), 1111–1128.
  5. Albuquerque, C., Morinha, F., Requicha, J., Martins, T., Dias, I., Guedes-Pinto, H., Bastos, E., & Viegas, C. (2012). Canine periodontitis: The dog as an important model for periodontal studies. The Veterinary Journal, 191, 299–305.
  6. Clarke, D. E., Servet, E., Hendriks, W., Thomas, D. G., Weidgraaf, K., & Biourge, V. C. (2010). Effect of kibble size, shape, and additives on plaque in cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 27(2), 84–89.
  7. Hennet, P., Servet, E., Soulard, Y., & Biourge, V. (2007). Effect of pellet food size and polyphosphates in preventing calculus accumulation in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 24(4), 236–239. doi: 10.1177/089875640702400405
  8. Ingham, K. E., Gorrel, C., & Bierer, T. L. (2002). Effect of a dental chew on dental substrates and gingivitis in cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 19(4), 201–204.
  9. Mateo, A., Torre, C., Crusafont, J., Sallas, A., & Jeusette, I. C. (2020). Evaluation of efficacy of a dental chew to reduce gingivitis, dental plaque, calculus, and halitosis in toy breed dogs. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 37(1), 22–28. doi: 10.1177/0898756420926766
  10. Logan, E. I. (2006). Dietary influences on periodontal health in dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 36, 1385–1401. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2006.09.002
  11. Gorrel, C., Inskeep, G., & Inskeep, T. (1998). Benefits of a ‘dental hygiene chew’ on the periodontal health of cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 15(3), 135–138.
  12. Gorrel, C., Warrick, J., & Bierer, T. L. (1999). Effect of a new dental hygiene chew on periodontal health in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 16(2), 77–81.
  13. Gorrel, C., & Bierer, T. L. (1999). Long term effects of a dental hygiene chew on the periodontal health of dogs. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 16(3), 109–113.
  14. Jeusette, I. C., Román, A. M., Torre, C., Crusafont, J., Sánchez, M. C., Pérez-Salcedo, L., & Herrera, D. (2016). 24-hour evaluation of dental plaque bacteria and halitosis after consumption of a single placebo or dental treat by dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 77(6), 613–619. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.77.6.613
  15. Gawor, J. P., Reiter, A. M., Jodkowska, K., Kurski, G., Wojtacki, M. P., & Kurek, A. (2006). Influence of diet on oral health in cats and dogs. Journal of Nutrition, 136(7 Suppl), 2021S–2023S. doi: 10.1093/jn/136.7.2021S
  16. Buckley, C., Colyer, A., Skrzywanek, M., Jodkowska, K., Kurski, G., Gawor, J., & Ceregrzyn, M. (2011). The impact of home-prepared diets and home oral hygiene on oral health in cats and dogs. British Journal of Nutrition, 106(Suppl 1), S124–S127. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511000821
  17. Bellows, J., Berg, M. L., Dennis, S., Harvey, R., Lobprise, H. B., Snyder, C. J., Stone, A. E. S., & Van de Wetering, A. G. (2019). 2019 AAHA dental care guidelines for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 55, 1–21. doi: 10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6933
  18. Marx, F. R., Machado, G. S., Pezzali, J. G., Marcolla, C. S., Kessler, A. M., Ahlstrøm, Ø., & Trevizan, L. (2016). Raw beef bones as chewing items to reduce dental calculus in beagle dogs. Australian Veterinary Journal, 94(1–2), 18–23. doi: 10.1111/avj.12394
  19. Pinto, C. F. D., Lehr, W., Pignone, V. N., Chain, C. P., & Trevizan, L. (2020). Evaluation of teeth injuries in Beagle dogs caused by autoclaved beef bones used as a chewing item to remove dental calculus. PLoS One, 15(2), e0228146. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228146
  20. Gianella, P., Pfammatter, N. S., & Burgener, I. A. (2009). Oesophageal and gastric endoscopic foreign body removal: Complications and follow-up of 102 dogs. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 50(12), 649–654. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2009.00845.x
  21. Rousseau, A., Prittie, J., Broussard, J. D., Fox, P. R., & Hoskinson, J. (2007). Incidence and characterization of esophagitis following esophageal foreign body removal in dogs: 60 cases (1999–2003). Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 17(2), 159–163. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2007.00227.x
  22. Thompson, H. C., Cortes, Y., Gannon, K., Bailey, D., & Freer, S. (2012). Esophageal foreign bodies in dogs: 34 cases (2004–2009). Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 22(2), 253–261. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2011.00700.x
  23. Van Valkenburgh, B., Peterson, R. O., Smith, D. W., Stahler, D. R., & Vucetich, J. A. (2019). Tooth fracture frequency in gray wolves reflects prey availability. eLife, 8, e48628. doi: 10.7554/eLife.48628
  24. Hellgren, J., Hästö, L. S., Wikström, C., Fernström, L., & Hansson, I. (2019). Occurrence of Salmonella, Campylobacter, Clostridium and Enterobacteriaceae in raw meat-based diets for dogs. Veterinary Record, 184, 442.
  25. van Bree, F. P. J., Bokken, G. C. A. M., Mineur, R., Franssen, F., Opsteegh, M., van der Giessen, J. W. B., Lipman, L. J. A., & Overgaauw, P. A. M. (2018). Zoonotic bacteria and parasites found in raw meat-based diets for cats and dogs. Veterinary Record, 182, 50.
  26. Nemser, S. M., Doran, T., Grabenstein, M., McConnell, T., McGrath, T., Pamboukian, R., Smith, A. C., Achen, M., Danzeisen, G., Kim, S., Liu, Y., Robeson, S., Rosario, G., McWilliams Wilson, K., & Reimschuessel, R. (2014). Investigation of Listeria, Salmonella, and toxigenic Escherichia coli in various pet foods. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 11(9), 706–709. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2014.1748
  27. Roudebush, P., Logan, E., & Hale, F. A. (2005). Evidence-based veterinary dentistry: A systematic review of homecare for prevention of periodontal disease in dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 22(1), 6–15.
  28. Pereira, A. M., Maia, M. R. G., Fonseca, A. J. M., & Cabrita, A. R. J. (2021). Zinc in dog nutrition, health and disease: A review. Animals, 11, 978. doi: 10.3390/ani11040978
  29. Nishiyama, S. A. B., Senhorinho, G. N. A., Gioso, M. A., & Avila-Campos, M. J. (2007). Detection of putative periodontal pathogens in subgingival specimens of dogs. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 38, 23–28.
  30. Ӧzavci, V., Erbas, G., Parin, U., Yüksel, H. T., & Kirkan, S. (2019). Molecular detection of feline and canine periodontal pathogens. Veterinary and Animal Science, 100069. doi: 10.1016/j.vas.2019.100069
  31. Davis, I. J., Wallis, C., Deusch, O., Colyer, A., Milella, L., Loman, N., & Harris, S. (2013). A cross-sectional survey of bacterial species in plaque from client owned dogs with healthy gingiva, gingivitis or mild periodontitis. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e83158. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083158
  32. Wallis, C., Marshall, M., Colyer, A., O’Flynn, C., Deusch, O., & Harris, S. (2015). A longitudinal assessment of changes in bacterial community composition associated with the development of periodontal disease in dogs. Veterinary Microbiology, 181, 271–282.
  33. Mallonee, D. H., Harvey, C. E., Venner, M., & Hammond, B. F. (1988). Bacteriology of periodontal disease in the cat. Archives of Oral Biology, 33(9), 677–683. doi: 10.1016/0003-9969(88)90123-9
  34. Bell, S. E., Nash, A. K., Zanghi, B. M., Otto, C. M., & Perry, E. B. (2020). An assessment of the stability of the canine oral microbiota after probiotic administration in healthy dogs over time. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 616. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00616
  35. Mäkinen, V.-M., Märyä, A., & Munukka, E. (2019). Improving the health of teeth in cats and dogs with live probiotic bacteria. Journal of Cosmetics, Dermatological Sciences and Applications, 9, 275–283. doi: 10.4236/jcdsa.2019.94024
  36. Kang, M.-S., Lee, D.-S., Lee, S.-A., Kim, M.-S., & Nam, S.-H. (2020). Effects of probiotic bacterium Weissella cibaria CMU on periodontal health and microbiota: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Oral Health, 20, 243. doi: 10.1186/s12903-020-01231-2