FAQ: Nutrients

Nutrients

Nutrients

You have questions about the nutrients contained in pet food and, at the Purina Institute, we have answers and information to help improve your knowledge of dog and cat nutrition. Here, you will find common questions about water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins—all drawn from our extensive library of nutrition and pet care resources.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Water 

Is water an essential nutrient?

Water is an essential nutrient and is considered the nutrient most critical for survival. Losses in body water of just 10% to 15% can result in death, with animals able to tolerate much higher fat or protein losses.1

How much water does a dog or cat need?

Healthy pets will typically self-regulate their water intake to meet their individual needs. Experts recommend providing fresh, clean water, free choice or water at a ratio 1 ml water:1 kcal metabolizable energy of food consumed.1

As well as the water bowl, pets obtain water from their food. Water is lost via urine, feces, and saliva during respiration (e.g., panting in dogs) or grooming (in cats).1

A change in water consumption unrelated to seasonal temperature, activity, or change in food from wet to dry can indicate an underlying health concern and should be communicated to the veterinarian.

Do dogs and cats differ in their water consumption?

While dogs are typically seen to drink, cat owners may not notice their cat drinking, especially when fed wet diets which can contain as much as 80% to 85% water and provide most, if not all, of their water needs.1

The domestic cat’s drinking habits trace back to their early days as desert hunters. As carnivores, cats would obtain much or all of their water from eating prey (e.g., birds and mice).2

Cats typically have a lower thirst drive than dogs.3 In addition, some cats have individual preferences for the source (still or moving), the container, or the temperature of the water.4

How to detect dehydration and which pets are at risk?

Signs of dehydration can include:

  • Less elastic skin (“skin tent test”)
  • Sticky or dry gums
  • Sunken eyes
  • Less urination

A number of factors can cause dehydration, including overheating, a lack of access to clean drinking water, or an underlying health issue (e.g., diarrhea and vomiting, diabetes, or kidney disease).

Senior cats and dogs may also be less inclined to drink.5 

Very active dogs may not meet their needs and may need to be encouraged to drink.6

When do pets benefit from increased water consumption?

Increased water intake is typically recommended for pets with lower urinary tract diseases.7,8 The primary goal is for the pet to produce a larger volume of a more dilute urine. This results in a decreased concentration of minerals that can form urinary crystals or stones, and may increase frequency of urination.7,8

Increased water intake can also help cats prone to constipation,9 as it helps soften stool.

How can pets be encouraged to drink more water?

  • Feed wet food—although pets drink from their bowl to compensate for the lower moisture in dry diets, a number of studies suggest that wet food (>70% moisture) can help increase total water intake.7
  • Feeding diets with increased levels of salt may encourage drinking in healthy pets.10
  • Purina research has shown that specially formulated, nutrient-enriched, flavored water supplements can increase water consumption in cats and dogs.11–15
  • Some cats prefer moving water (e.g., via water fountains), larger water bowls (whiskers don’t touch the sides) and water provided in a stainless steel or crockery container (plastic odors can deter cats from drinking).4
  • Offer multiple water bowls in multi-pet households.4

Is there a benefit to feeding wet food over dry food?

The majority of healthy pets will consume sufficient quantities of water to maintain optimal health when eating solely dry foods and drinking water free choice.1 However, if pets, and cats in particular, are prone to lower urinary tract issues, feeding a wet diet may be beneficial to increase total water intake.1,4,7

 

References

Protein

What is protein?

Protein is an essential nutrient for both dogs and cats. During digestion, dietary proteins are broken down by enzymes into amino acids, commonly known as the “building blocks” of protein. The amino acids are then used to build new proteins in the body (e.g., for muscles, skin, coat, and antibodies).

Proteins are made up of both essential and nonessential amino acids.

Essential amino acids cannot be produced in the body or in sufficient quantities and must be provided in a pet’s diet. Both dogs and cats require 10 essential amino acids:

  • Arginine
  • Histidine
  • Isoleucine
  • Leucine
  • Lysine
  • Methionine
  • Phenylalanine
  • Threonine
  • Tryptophan
  • Valine

Cats need an additional amino acid, taurine, a beta-amino sulfonic acid found exclusively in meat and fish.

Dogs and cats also require 12 nonessential amino acids. These amino acids can be produced in the body or provided in the diet.

A nutritionally balanced diet typically contains both essential and nonessential amino acids.1

Why is protein important for pets?

Protein plays many important roles in the body:1

  • Production of antibodies to fight infection
  • Production of digestive enzymes and hormones (e.g., insulin)
  • Supports healthy skin and coat (e.g., hair is >90% protein)
  • Builds and maintains strong muscles

Do senior pets need more or less protein than younger animals?

Studies show that as dogs and cats age, their bodies are not as efficient at digesting or metabolizing dietary protein. According to the scientific literature, restricting protein in healthy older dogs is not needed and can be detrimental.2

Healthy senior pets should generally eat more protein than younger adult pets.2–6 If a pet does not consume enough protein over an extended period, they will ultimately lose lean body mass, which will be seen as muscle wasting. (Although the body uses “reserve” protein from its lean body mass every day, this must be replaced by dietary protein or lean body mass will be slowly depleted.)2 A loss in lean body mass may have negative effects on health, including greater susceptibility to infection and even a shortened life span.2,7,8

As well as the quantity of protein, research also shows the quality of protein is important in maintaining lean body mass. Diets for senior pets should include high quality, highly digestible protein.4,9

Are there differences in the protein needs of dogs and cats when they age?

  • Similar to people, the energy (calorie) needs of many older dogs decrease particularly if they are less active, bringing the risk of becoming overweight. To meet their higher protein requirements while maintaining an optimal body condition, senior dogs typically need diets with a higher protein-to-calorie ratio (i.e., more protein for every calorie consumed).2
  • Unlike dogs, once cats reach about 10–12 years of age, their calorie or energy needs can actually increase. This is thought to be related to a decreased ability to absorb fat and protein1,7,10 which can result in weight loss. Senior cats from 10–12 years of age generally require a highly digestible diet which provides high levels of protein but is not restricted in overall calories.1,11

When should protein intake be restricted for senior pets?

Historically, many veterinarians would recommend protein restriction for older pets in the belief that this would help protect kidney function, but this has since proved unfounded.

Numerous studies have confirmed that protein does not adversely affect the kidneys or cause kidney disease in healthy senior pets.1,2 

In pets with advanced kidney disease, however, there may be benefits to restricting both dietary protein and phosphorus. In chronic kidney disease, accumulation of the waste products from protein breakdown can occur in the blood, resulting in nausea and loss of appetite. Thus for these pets, dietary protein restriction can be beneficial.1,2

Are there benefits to feeding “novel” protein sources?

“Novel” (less commonly used) protein sources are sometimes thought to be more beneficial for pets than more frequently used protein sources found in pet foods, such as beef or chicken. However, pets require specific nutrients (i.e., protein and amino acids), not a specific source of protein. There is no additional health or nutritional benefit to feeding novel proteins to healthy pets compared to more traditional sources.

Novel protein diets may be helpful in cases of suspected food intolerances or food allergies to avoid feeding proteins the pet has previously been exposed to. However, feeding novel proteins will not prevent pets from developing a food allergy,12 and there are no known benefits for healthy pets.

For more information about the role of protein in food allergies, see Protein in Food Allergies and Food Allergies & Food Intolerances in Pets.

 

References

Fats

Do dogs and cats need fat in their diet?

Fat is an important nutrient for pets. Composed of fatty acids, most fat found in pet food is in the form of “triglycerides,” which are made up of three fatty acids. The physical and metabolic effects of the fat depend on the fatty acids it contains.

What are essential fatty acids?

Fatty acids, a component of fats, can be divided into two groups:

  • Essential fatty acids (EFAs) must be provided in the diet as they cannot be produced in the body.
  • Nonessential fatty acids can be supplied in the diet but also can be produced in the body.1,2

Essential fatty acids include both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The “6” or “3” simply refers to the position of the first double bond in the structure of the fatty acid relative to the “omega” end of the molecule.

See the Hot Topic Essential Fatty Acids in Pet Foods for a detailed list of essential fatty acids required by dogs and cats, which ingredients are used in pet foods to provide EFAs, and where EFAs function in the body.

What are common sources of fat in pet food?

Dietary fats can come from animal, marine, or vegetable sources and are either solid or liquid (oils) at room temperature. Common animal or marine sources of fat in pet food include beef fat, chicken fat, and fish oil. Common vegetable sources are:

  • Canola (rapeseed) oil
  • Corn oil
  • Flaxseed oil
  • Soybean oil
  • Sunflower oil
  • Vegetable oil

What is the function of fat in pet food?

  • Provides energy—fat is the most concentrated source of calories in the diet, providing more than twice that supplied from carbohydrates or protein on a per-gram basis.1 Fat provides 8.5 kilocalories (kcal) of metabolizable energy (ME) per gram; carbohydrates and protein provide 3.5 kcal ME per gram.
  • Provides the essential fatty acids which cannot be produced in the body.1 Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) are essential for both dogs and cats. Cats also require arachidonic acid in their diet. Both eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are considered “conditionally essential” during growth, gestation, and lactation. These omega-3 fatty acids are produced in the body, but not in sufficient quantities during these times.
  • Carries the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and facilitates their absorption from the intestine.1
  • Helps promote healthy skin (by helping retain moisture in the skin) and a soft, shiny coat.2
  • Enhances the taste and also influences the texture of food.1

When do pets benefit from a lower fat diet?

  • Since fat is the main contributor of calories, less dietary fat helps reduce the caloric density of food which can help obese, overweight, or less active pets.1
  • As dogs age, their energy needs typically decrease, particularly if they are less active, and a reduced fat diet can help maintain optimal weight.1
  • A lower fat diet is often recommended for dogs with gastrointestinal (GI) conditions since they may not digest fat properly. Undigested fat in the colon or large intestine can lead to diarrhea (steatorrhea) and intestinal inflammation.1,3 Dietary fat is not as important when managing GI conditions in cats, and a Purina study showed no difference in response between cats with chronic diarrhea fed diets differing only in the level of fat.3

When do pets benefit from a higher fat diet?

Increased fat levels in the diet can help meet the higher energy needs required by:

  • Highly active, sporting, or working dogs—due to differences in muscle fibers, dogs rely more on fat as a source of energy for endurance exercise,1,2 while human endurance athletes rely more on energy from glycogen (supplied by dietary carbohydrates).4 Purina research showed canine endurance athletes fed a high-fat diet had improved endurance than when fed a high-carbohydrate diet.5
  • Pregnant or lactating pets, with the latter requiring up to 3 times as many calories compared to maintenance needs.1
  • Healthy animals that have difficulty maintaining body weight (e.g., geriatric cats).1

Since fat increases the palatability of foods, a higher fat diet may also encourage finicky pets to eat.

What are the differences in fat requirements between pets and people?

In general, reducing intake of saturated fat is recommended for people due to the association of fat with high cholesterol.6 There are two types of cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein (HDL) is often referred to as “good” cholesterol, while low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is considered “bad” cholesterol.

In people, a diet high in most saturated fats can increase the level of bad cholesterol, which may potentially lead to the development of “blocked arteries.” However, due to genetic and metabolic differences, dogs and cats have more good than bad cholesterol regardless of their diet, and are far less susceptible to developing blocked arteries, so can typically tolerate high levels of any type of fat in their diets.7

What is the role of fatty acids in inflammation?

Inflammation is a normal part of the body’s healing and protective immune processes. Severe or chronic inflammation, however, can be detrimental to health; the goal is to manage (“balance”) the inflammatory process.

Both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are used to make compounds involved with the inflammatory response to injury and infection. In general, omega-6s are converted to compounds that “promote” inflammation and omega-3s to compounds that help resolve inflammation. This is why omega-6s are often referred to as “pro-inflammatory” and omega-3s as “anti-inflammatory.” However, this should not be inferred that omega-6s are “bad” and omega-3s are “good;” both are necessary to manage inflammation. Adjusting dietary levels of omega-6s and omega-3s influences their levels found in cell membranes, which ultimately can influence the degree of inflammation in the body.1,2

When do pets benefit from increased fatty acids in the diet?

  • Increased levels of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) help to retain skin moisture and restore coat luster in pets with dry, flaky skin or coarse, dull coats.1
  • Studies have shown increased eicosahexaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can help reduce clinical signs in dogs with allergic skin conditions (e.g., itching).8,9 Conversion to EPA and DHA from ALA is not efficient in the body, so a source of EPA and DHA (e.g., fish oil) is added to the diet when increased amounts are needed.1,2
  • Purina research has shown that feeding a therapeutic diet high in EPA and DHA can help improve mobility in arthritic dogs.10
  • Providing dietary DHA to both the pregnant or nursing mother and her puppies or kittens helps support optimal brain development and vision both in utero and after birth.1 Puppies’ brains grow rapidly, reaching 90% of adult brain mass at 3 months of age.11 About 60% of the brain’s dry weight is fat. Among these lipids, DHA is the most abundant fatty acid and contributes significantly to the structure of both gray and white matter, tissues essential for learning, memory, and other cognitive functions.12
  • Purina research has shown that a high DHA diet improved trainability13 and visual acuity14 in puppies.

 

References

Carbohydrates

What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates, together with protein and fat, are macronutrients—used by the body in relatively large amounts. Carbohydrates can be divided into two main types: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are composed of one or two sugar units, while complex carbohydrates consist of multiple sugar units. Through digestion, complex carbohydrates (e.g., starch) are broken down into simple sugars (e.g., glucose), which are used by the body for energy. Almost all cells of the body require glucose as their predominant energy source.

Dietary fiber is the indigestible fraction of carbohydrate, and although it provides many benefits to the pet and its gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota, it is not a source of glucose.

The carbohydrate content of a pet food is not typically declared on the pet food label, but it can be estimated by calculating the “nitrogen-free extract” (NFE). By using information supplied on the pet food label, the estimated percentage of carbohydrates can be calculated using the following equation:

NFE % = 100 – (crude protein % + crude fat % + crude fiber % + moisture % + ash %)1

Note: The term “ash” refers to the total mineral content of pet food, and includes essential minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.

What is the role of carbohydrates in pet food?

Dogs and cats have a physiological requirement for glucose.2 This need for glucose can either be met by dietary carbohydrates or by a process known as gluconeogenesis (the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substances like protein).3 If carbohydrates are not provided in the diet, glucose will be obtained from protein as the body satisfies its energy requirements first.4

Carbohydrates have a protein-sparing effect: When sufficient dietary carbohydrates are provided, the use of protein as an energy source is spared.

Carbohydrates provide an easily digestible energy source in pet food, and contribute shape and texture to extruded dry pet food. Although wet pet foods may contain some carbohydrates, extruded dry diets typically contain higher levels.5–7

The largest proportion of carbohydrates in pet food is provided by starch.4 Proper processing of starch, such as grinding and cooking, makes the starch more available and digestible.4

In the United States, common carbohydrate sources in pet food include both grain and non-grain ingredients:3,4

  • Grains
    • Barley
    • Corn
    • Wheat
    • Oats
    • Rice
    • Sorghum
  • Non-grain
    • Potatoes
    • Beans
    • Cassava
    • Flax seeds
    • Carrots
    • Molasses
    • Peas

How well can pets digest carbohydrates?

Since dogs and cats in the wild typically do not consume large amounts of carbohydrates, and cats are defined as “obligate carnivores” (i.e., they require nutrients naturally found only in animal tissues), there is a perception that pets cannot digest carbohydrates. Although dogs and cats both lack salivary amylase (i.e., an enzyme in the mouth which initiates carbohydrate digestion), both species have sufficient pancreatic amylase and other enzymes which allow them to efficiently digest properly processed carbohydrates.3 In fact, dogs and cats can digest properly cooked carbohydrates with greater than 90% efficiency.8.9

Are carbohydrates linked to obesity and diabetes in pets?

Although it has been suggested that high-carbohydrate diets can contribute to the development of diabetes and obesity in cats, there is no evidence for this in the scientific literature.10 Low-carbohydrate diets can be high in calories,3 as the carbohydrates are frequently replaced with fat which provides more than twice the metabolic energy of an equivalent amount of carbohydrate or protein. Excess calorie consumption, not the carbohydrate themselves, can be a risk factor for obesity.

Diabetes is a disease characterized by high blood glucose levels. Glucose from dietary carbohydrates is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells where it is used for energy. The term glycemic index refers to a relative ranking system that categorizes foods based on their effects on blood glucose levels. The majority of carbohydrates found in pet food are complex carbohydrates.4 Generally, complex carbohydrates have a lower glycemic index than simple sugars because they are digested and absorbed more slowly, leading to lower blood glucose levels.4

What is fiber?

Fiber is the indigestible fraction of a carbohydrate; the body’s digestive enzymes cannot break it down. Fiber in pet food usually comes from plant sources.

Fiber can be classified as either soluble or insoluble, which simply describes whether it can dissolve in water. Many natural fibers contain a mixture of soluble and insoluble components.11,12

While cats and dogs do not have the enzymes to digest fiber, the beneficial bacteria living in the colon (large intestine) can break down or “ferment” certain fibers. The beneficial bacteria use fermentable fiber as an energy source. Although exceptions exist, soluble fibers typically are more fermentable than insoluble fibers.11,12

Fibers that are both fermentable and can stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial gut bacteria are called prebiotic fibers.4,11,12 For more information about prebiotic fibers, see [Prebiotics].

For a list of common fibers used in pet food and their solubility and fermentability, see Fiber in Pet Food.

What is the role of fiber in pet food?

Fiber has many different functions and provides a number of benefits for pets:

  • Supports the movement of food through the intestinal tract—depending on the type of fiber, it can have a bulking effect and can stimulate contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the gut wall (peristalsis) which helps with the transit of the food. High levels of insoluble fiber can increase the speed that food passes through the intestines. Since dogs and cats have short intestinal tracts, if food moves too quickly, this reduces the time for nutrients to be absorbed.4,11,12
  • Affects both the volume and quality of stool—since fiber cannot be digested, a higher fiber diet typically increases the volume of stool produced. Fiber promotes regular bowel movements and plays a role in absorbing water. Certain fibers such as beet pulp hold more water, thus helping soften hard stool and also help the production of well-formed stools.4,11,12
  • Exfoliation of intestinal cells—insoluble fiber particles act as a natural exfoliant, sloughing off dead gut cells thereby helping stimulate the turnover of intestinal cells.13
  • Production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)—fermentable fibers are broken down by beneficial bacteria, producing SCFAs (e.g., butyrate) and are used by the intestinal cells as a source of energy, especially in the colon or large intestine. The cells grow and multiply, increasing the surface area of the colon lining, which helps maximize nutrient absorption.4,12
  • Influences both the texture and consistency of pet food—gum-type soluble fibers, sourced from certain seeds and beans such as guar gum, can enhance the texture of wet foods and gravies.14

When is high fiber beneficial for a pet?

  • Higher levels of fiber are used in some weight loss diets. Fiber helps dilute the amount of calories in the food, thus increasing the amount of food and the “volume in the bowl” which can help pet owners managing weight loss in their pets. Fiber can also help the pet feel more satiated.15
  • Certain fibers have been shown to minimize the formation of hairballs in cats. For example, cellulose and soybean hulls help increase gastric emptying, decreasing the ability of hairballs to form in the stomach.16
  • Higher fiber in the diet, coupled with increased water intake, may help with constipation.12
  • Fiber helps slow the absorption of carbohydrates from food. This helps minimize the sharp spikes in blood glucose levels seen after eating certain foods. This may have benefits in diabetes mellitus.17,18

 

References

Minerals

Do pets need minerals in their food?

Minerals are one of six nutrient groups in pet food that dogs and cats need for optimal health. The other five nutrient categories are water, protein, fats, carbohydrates, and vitamins. Although minerals only comprise about 4% of a dog’s or cat’s total body weight, these nutrients are essential to sustain life and maintain health.1

Minerals are grouped into macrominerals and microminerals based on the amounts needed for healthy body function.

Macrominerals

  • Found in greater amounts compared to microminerals in the body
  • Needed in greater amounts in the diet
    • Calcium
    • Phosphorus
    • Magnesium
    • Sodium
    • Potassium
    • Chloride

Microminerals (trace elements)

  • Found in very small amounts in the body
  • Needed in smaller amounts in the diet
    • Iron
    • Copper
    • Zinc
    • Manganese
    • Iodine
    • Selenium

How do minerals contribute to pet health?

Although minerals do not provide energy, they have a multitude of important functions in the body.1 Some crucial roles minerals play in pet health include:

  • Calcium—skeletal formation, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, blood coagulation
  • Phosphorus—normal tooth and bone formation, metabolic processes
  • Magnesium—nerve impulse transmission; muscle contraction, especially cardiac; metabolic processes
  • Sodium, potassium and chloride—cell integrity, electrolyte and cellular fluid balance, nerve and muscle function
  • Iron—major component of heme, the oxygen-carrying protein in blood
  • Copper—helps absorb dietary iron, red blood cell formation and activity, hair coat pigmentation, normal bone development
  • Zinc—component of many enzymes for cell function, protein synthesis and immune health
  • Manganese—nutrient metabolism, nervous system function, normal bone development
  • Iodine—major component of thyroid hormones, important for growth and development
  • Selenium—antioxidant functions that prevent cell and tissue damage

Are mineral supplements good for my pet?

Although mineral deficiencies can lead to health risks, too much of any particular mineral can also cause problems because they often work together to maintain balance for optimal body functions. For example:

  • Excess calcium or phosphorus can cause skeletal development problems—especially in growing animals.2
  • Excess copper can interfere with iron absorption.3

Studies have shown that home-prepared diets, when not formulated properly, may risk the health status of dogs and cats through nutritional imbalances—most often found to be improper amounts and ratios of minerals.4

Good quality commercial pet foods are formulated to ensure that essential minerals are present in the correct amounts and ratios, and are able to be adequately absorbed during digestion in dogs or cats.

Are minerals always listed on the pet food label?

If minerals are added separately to pet foods, they will be listed on the label based on the amount added. Other minerals will be provided from the natural ingredients, and will not be on the ingredients list but will be present in adequate amounts in complete and balanced diets.

What are chelated minerals?

Chelated minerals are minerals that have been chemically bound to amino acids or protein, which makes them easier for the body to absorb. Chelated minerals appear on pet food labels as a “proteinate” or “chelate” (e.g., zinc proteinate).1

What is “ash” on the pet food label?

The total mineral content in a food—including calcium, phosphorus, and all other minerals—is referred to as the “ash” content (also called “inorganic matter”). It is called ash because laboratory analyses of food to determine its mineral content requires incinerating food samples at very high temperatures. The ash is the incombustible part of the food that is left: minerals.1

 

References

Vitamins

What are vitamins?

Vitamins are important micronutrients—present in the diet and used by the body in small amounts. They assist many critical metabolic functions in the body.1

Vitamins are divided into two groups: fat soluble and water soluble.

  • Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K. Fat-soluble vitamins are digested and absorbed with dietary fat, and their metabolites are excreted in the feces. Excesses of fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body, predominantly in the liver, thus deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins develop more slowly than water-soluble vitamin deficiencies. However, fat-soluble vitamins, specifically vitamins A and D, have the potential to reach toxic levels.1
  • Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the small intestine and excreted in the urine. The body is unable to store significant levels of water-soluble vitamins except for cobalamin (vitamin B12).1

What are the functions of vitamins in pet food?

Several vitamins can be produced by the body (produced endogenously): biotin, vitamins B9 (folate), K, and possibly some B2 (riboflavin) in the large intestine by bacteria; vitamin C in the liver; and limited amounts of vitamin D in the skin secondary to sun exposure. Although the levels of endogenously produced vitamins may be enough for most healthy pets, these vitamins can be included in the diet to ensure the pet is receiving complete and balanced nutrition or for specific needs (e.g., therapeutic diets). The remaining vitamins must be supplied in the diet.1

What are the key roles of fat-soluble vitamins in pet health?

  • Vitamin A—vision, skeletal development, reproduction, skin and mucous membrane health. Beta-carotene (a carotenoid and vitamin A precursor) and the carotenoid lutein have immune-modulating and antioxidant effects.
    • Unlike dogs, cats lack sufficient levels of the enzyme that converts vitamin A precursors (plant pigments known as carotenoids [e.g., beta-carotene]) to active vitamin A and thus need preformed vitamin A in the diet.
  • Vitamin D—regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism, skeletal development; immune-modulating effects.2 Studies in other species show effects on the microbiome and that vitamin D deficiency increases risk of chronic diseases.3,4
    • Cats and dogs cannot produce sufficient vitamin D3 from sun exposure, thus need a dietary source.
  • Vitamin E—An antioxidant that protects against oxidative stress.
    • Vitamin E requirements increase when diets contain high levels of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
  • Vitamin K—Blood clotting.

What key roles do water-soluble vitamins play in pet health?

  • Vitamin C—Antioxidant, formation and maintenance of collagen and connective tissue, normal immune function.
    • Unlike humans, cats and dogs produce vitamin C in the liver from glucose.
  • Thiamine (B1)—Metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein in the diet into energy; DNA synthesis; red blood cells; nerve/brain function.
    • Cats have a much higher requirement than dogs. Raw fish contains thiaminase, which destroys thiamine.
  • Riboflavin (B2)—Energy metabolism.
  • Niacin (B3)—Energy metabolism.
    • Although dogs can derive some niacin by converting the amino acid tryptophan, cats cannot do so. Both species benefit from a dietary source of niacin.
  • Pantothenic acid (B5)—Energy metabolism.
  • Pyridoxine (B6)—Energy metabolism, hemoglobin production, conversion of tryptophan to niacin.
  • Biotin (B7 or B8, depending on the reference)—Energy metabolism, skin and coat health.
    • Raw egg whites contain avidin, which binds biotin making it unavailable for use by the body.
  • Folate (B9)—Cell maintenance and growth, energy metabolism.
  • Cobalamin (B12)—Cell maintenance and growth; energy metabolism; production of myelin, brain function; red blood cell production.
    • Gastrointestinal disease is frequently associated with inadequate B12, especially in aging cats.5
  • Choline (vitamin-like nutrient)—Metabolism, component of cell membranes, precursor to acetylcholine, transport of fatty acids.

Would a pet benefit from vitamin supplementation?

Nutritionally complete and balanced diets contain all the vitamins in the correct levels and ratios that healthy pets need, so dogs or cats fed exclusively on these diets should not need supplemental vitamins. Several vitamins may occasionally be supplemented for specific indications (e.g., liver disease, anticoagulant rodenticide toxicity) under veterinary management.

 

References

References

Water

  1. National Research Council. (2006). Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press.
  2. Prentiss, P. G., Wolf, A. V., & Eddy, H. A. (1959). Hydropenia in cat and dog. Ability of the cat to meet its water requirements solely from a diet of fish or meat. American Journal of Physiology, 196(3), 625–632.
  3. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed.). Mosby.
  4. Westropp, J. L., & Buffington, C. A. T. (2004). Feline idiopathic cystitis: Current understanding of pathophysiology and management. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 34, 1043–1055.
  5. Fahey, G. C., Jr., Barry, K. A., & Swanson, K. S. (2008). Age-related changes in nutrient utilization by companion animals. Annual Review of Nutrition, 28, 425–445.
  6. Goucher, T. K., Hartzell, A. M., Seales, T. S., Anmuth, A. S., Zanghi, B. M., & Otto, C. M. (2018). Evaluation of skin turgor and capillary refill time as predictors of dehydration in exercising dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 80(2), 123–128.
  7. Queau, Y. (2019). Nutritional management of urolithiasis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 49, 175–186.
  8. Forrester, S. D., & Towell, T. L. (2015). Feline idiopathic cystitis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 45, 783–806.
  9. Pittari, J., Rodan, I., Beekman, G., Gunn-Moore, D., Polzin, D., Taboada, J., Tuzio, H., & Zoran, D. (2009). American Association of Feline Practitioners. Senior care guidelines. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 11(9), 763–778.
  10. Queau, Y., Bijsmans, E. S., Feugier, A., & Biourge, V. C. (2020). Increasing dietary sodium chloride promotes urine dilution and decreases struvite and calcium oxalate relative supersaturation in healthy dogs and cats. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. doi: 10.1111/jpn.13329
  11. Zanghi, B. M., & Gardner, C. L. (2018). Total water intake and urine measures of hydration in adult dogs drinking tap water or a nutrient-enriched water. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00317
  12. Zanghi, B. M., Gerheart, L., & Gardner, C. L. (2018). Effects of a nutrient-enriched water on water intake and indices of hydration in healthy cats fed a dry kibble diet. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 79(7), 733–744.
  13. Zanghi, B. M., Wils-Plotz, E., DeGeer, S., & Gardner, C. L. (2018). Effects of a nutrient-enriched water with and without poultry flavoring on water intake, urine specific gravity, and urine output in healthy domestic cats fed a dry kibble diet. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 79(11), 1150–1159.
  14. Wils-Plotz, E., & Zanghi, B. (2019). Nutrient-enriched water supplements nutritionally support hydration in the domestic cat. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33(5), 2516.
  15. Zanghi, B., McGivney, C., Eirmann, L., & Barnes, M. (2019). Hydration measures in cats during brief anesthesia: Intravenous fluids versus pre-procedure water supplement ingestion. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33(5), 2514.

Protein

  1. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed.). Mosby.
  2. Laflamme, D. P. (2008). Pet food safety: dietary protein. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 23(3), 154–157. doi: 10.1053/j.tcam.2008.04.009
  3. Sanderson, S. L. (2018). Rethinking protein restriction in aging dogs and cats with chronic kidney disease. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Gerontology: an inside out perspective. Charleston (SC), May 3–5, 87–89.
  4. Laflamme, D. (2018). Effect of diet on loss and preservation of lean body mass in aging dogs and cats. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Gerontology: an inside out perspective. Charleston (SC), May 3–5, 51–56.
  5. Laflamme, D. (2013). Determining protein requirements: nitrogen balance versus lean body mass. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Tackling myths about pet nutrition. Atlanta (GA), March 21–23, 42–45.
  6. Wakshlag, J. J. (2010). Dietary protein consumption in the healthy aging companion animal. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Focus on gerontology. Clearwater Beach (FL), March 26–27, 32–39.
  7. Cupp, C. J., & Kerr, W. W. (2010). Effect of diet and body composition on life span in aging cats. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Focus on gerontology. Clearwater Beach (FL), March 26–27, 40–46.
  8. Freeman, L. M., Lachaud, M. P., Matthews, S., Rhodes, L., & Zollers, B. (2016). Evaluation of weight loss over time in cats with chronic kidney disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(5), 1661–1666. doi: 10.1111/jvim.14561
  9. Wakshlag, J. J., Barr, S. C., Ordway, G. A., Kallfelz, F. A., Flaherty, C. E., Christensen, B. W., Shepard, L. A., Nydam, D. V., & Davenport, G. M. (2003). Effect of dietary protein on lean body mass and markers of proteasome-dependent proteolysis. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 87(11–12), 408–420.
  10. Pérez-Camargo, G. (2010). Feline decline in physiological reserves: implications for mortality. Proceedings of the Companion Animal Nutrition Summit: Focus on gerontology. Clearwater Beach (FL), March 26–27, 6–12.
  11. Laflamme, D., & Gunn-Moore, D. (2014). Nutrition of aging cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 44(4), 761–774. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.03.001
  12. Mueller, R. S., Olivry, T., & Prélaud, P. (2016). Critically appraised topic on adverse food reactions of companion animals (2): Common food allergen sources in dogs and cats. BMC Veterinary Research, 12, 9. doi: 10.1186/S12917-016-0633-8

Fats

  1. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed.). Mosby.
  2. National Research Council. (2006). Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press.
  3. Laflamme, D. P., Xu, H., & Long, G. M. (2011). Effect of diets differing in fat content on chronic diarrhea in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 25(2), 230–235. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0665.x
  4. Hill, R. C. (2012). Nutritional and energy requirements for performance. In A. J. Fascetti & S. J. Delaney (Eds.), Applied veterinary clinical nutrition (pp. 47–56), Wiley-Blackwell. doi: 10.1002/9781118785669.ch4
  5. Reynolds, A. J., Fuhrer, L., Dunlap, H. L., Finke, M., & Kallfelz, F. A. (1995). Effect of diet and training on muscle glycogen storage and utilization in sled dogs. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985), 79(5), 1601–1607.
  6. Elmadfa, I., & Kornsteiner, M. (2009). Fats and fatty acid requirements for adults. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism, 55, 56–75. doi: 10.1159/000228996
  7. Bauer, J. E. (2006). Facilitative and functional fats in diets of cats and dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 229(5), 680–684.
  8. Logas, D., & Kunkle, G. A. (1994). Double-blinded crossover study with marine oil supplementation containing high dose eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of canine pruritic skin disease. Veterinary Dermatology, 5, 99–104.
  9. Mueller, R. S., Fieseler, K. V., Fettman, M. J., Zabel, S., Rosychuk, R. A. W., Ogilvie, G. K., & Greenwalt, T. L. (2004). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on canine atopic dermatitis. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 45(6), 293–297. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2004.tb00238.x
  10. Moreau, M., Troncy, E., del Castillo, J. R. E., Bedard, C., Gauvin, D., & Lussier, B. (2013). Effects of feeding a high omega-3 fatty acids diet in dogs with naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Journal of Animal Physiology & Animal Nutrition, 97(5), 830–837. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01325.x
  11. Gross, B., Garcia-Tapia, D., Riedesel, E., Ellinwood, N. M., & Jens, J. K. (2010). Normal canine brain maturation at magnetic resonance imaging. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 51(4), 361–373.
  12. Salem, N., Jr., Litman, B., Kim, H.-Y., & Gawrisch, K. (2001). Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids, 36(9), 945–959. doi: 10.1007/S11745-001-0805-6
  13. Reynolds, A. J., Waldron, M., Wilsson, E., Leavitt, Y., Dunlap, A., & Bailey, K. (2006). Effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on mental stability, problem-solving ability, and learned pattern retention in young, growing dogs. Proceedings of the Nestlé Purina Nutrition Forum: Advances in veterinary nutrition. Lausanne (Switzerland), October 9–10, 74.
  14. Heinemann, K. M., Waldron, M. K., Bigley, K. E., Lees, G. E., & Bauer, J. E. (2005). Long-chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids are more efficient than a-linolenic acid in improving electroretinogram responses of puppies exposed during gestation, lactation and weaning. Journal of Nutrition, 135, 1960–1966.

Carbohydrates

  1. Steiff, E. L., & Bauer, J. E. (2001). Nutritional adequacy of diets formulated for companion animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 219(5), 601–604. doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.219.601
  2. Thompson, A. (2008). Ingredients: Where pet food starts. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 23(3), 127–132. doi: 10.1053/j.tcam.2008.04.004
  3. Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L., & Binder, S. (2014). Myths and misperceptions about ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 44, 689–698. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.03.002
  4. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed.). Mosby.
  5. Berendt, K. (2014). Starch: an alternative energy source for cats. Thesis submitted for MS degree in Anim Sci. University of Alberta. Available at https://era.library.ualberta.ca/files/r494vn79x#.WUvOnGjyuUk
  6. Verbrugghe, A., & Hesta, M. (2017). Cats and carbohydrates: the carnivore fantasy? Veterinary Science, 4, 55. doi: 10.3390/vetsci4040055
  7. Backus, R., Cave, N., Ganjam, V., Turner, J., & Biourge, V. (2010). Age and body weight effects on glucose and insulin tolerance in colony cats maintained since weaning on high dietary carbohydrate. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 94(6), e318–e328. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2010.01014.x
  8. Carciofi, A. C., Takakura, F. S., de-Oliveira, L. D., et al. (2008). Effects of six carbohydrate sources on dog diet digestibility and post-prandial glucose and insulin response. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 92, 326–336. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2007.00794.x
  9. de-Oliveira, L. D., Carciofi, A. C., Oliveira, M. C., et al. (2008). Effects of six carbohydrate sources on diet digestibility and postprandial glucose and insulin responses in cats. Journal of Animal Science, 86, 2237–2246. doi: 10.2527/jas.2007-0354
  10. Laflamme, D. P. (2010). Cats and carbohydrates: Implications for health and disease. Compendium: Continuing Education for Veterinarians, 32(1), E1–E3.
  11. Fiber frustrations. (2019, November 4). Retrieved from https://vetnutrition.tufts.edu/2019/11/04/fiber-frustrations/
  12. Cave, N. (2012). Nutritional management of gastrointestinal diseases. In A. J. Fascetti & S. J. Delaney (Eds.), Applied veterinary clinical nutrition (pp. 175–219). Wiley-Blackwell. doi: 10.1002/9781118785669.ch12
  13. Fiber. (2019, March). Retrieved from https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/other-nutrients/fiber
  14. Delaney, S. J., & Fascetti, A. J. (2012). Basic nutrition overview. In A. J. Fascetti & S. J. Delaney (Eds.), Applied veterinary clinical nutrition (pp. 9–22). Wiley-Blackwell. doi: 10.1002/9781118785669.ch2
  15. German, A. J., Holden, S. L., Bissot, T., Morris, P. J., & Biourge, V. (2010). A high protein high fibre diet improves weight loss in obese dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 183(3), 294–297. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.12.004
  16. Chandler, M. L., Guilford, W. G., Lawoko, C. R. O., & Whittem, T. (1999). Gastric emptying and intestinal transit times of radiopaque markers in cats fed a high-fiber diet with and without low-dose intravenous diazepam. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 40(1), 3–8. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.1999.tb01831.x
  17. Behrend, E., Holford, A., Lathan, P., Rucinsky, R., & Schulman, R. (2018). 2018 AAHA diabetes management guidelines for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 54(1), 1–21. doi: 10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6822
  18. Laflamme, D. P. (2005). Nutrition for aging cats and dogs and the importance of body condition. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 35(3), 713–742. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.12.011

Minerals

  1. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed., pp. 37–44; 107–117). Mosby.
  2. Schoenmakers, I., Nap, R. C., Mol, J. A., & Hazewinkel, H. A. (1999). Calcium metabolism: an overview of its hormonal regulation and interrelation with skeletal integrity. The Veterinary Quarterly, 21(4), 147–153.
  3. Chan, W. Y., & Rennert, O. M. (1980). The role of copper in iron metabolism. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science, 10(4), 338–344.
  4. Pedrinelli, V., Zafalon, R., Rodrigues, R., Perini, M. P., Conti, R., Vendramini, T., de Carvalho Balieiro, J. C., & Brunetto, M. A. (2019). Concentrations of macronutrients, minerals and heavy metals in home-prepared diets for adult dogs and cats. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 13058.

Vitamins

  1. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (2011). Canine and feline nutrition: A resource for companion animal professionals (3rd ed.). Mosby.
  2. Jaffrey, J. A., Amorim, J., & DeClue, A. E. (2018). Effect of calcitriol on in vitro whole blood cytokine production in critically ill dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 236, 31–36. doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2018.04.010
  3. Jin, D., Wu, S., Zhang, Y.-g., Lu, R., Xia, Y., Dong, H., & Sun, J. (2015). Lack of vitamin D receptor causes dysbiosis and changes the functions of the murine intestinal microbiome. Clinical Therapeutics, 37(5), 996–1009. doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2015.04.004
  4. Holick, M. F. (2010). Vitamin D and health: Evolution, biologic functions, and recommended dietary intakes for vitamin D. In M. Holick (Ed.), Vitamin D. Nutrition and health (pp. 3–33). Humana Press. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60327-303-9_1
  5. Hill, S. A., Cave, N. J., & Forsyth, S. (2015). Effect of age, sex and body weight on the serum concentrations of cobalamin and folate in cats consuming a consistent diet. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 20(2), 135–141. doi: 10.1177/1098612X17699680